The Taguchi Methods for Quality Improvement

The Taguchi Methods for Quality Improvement INTRODUCTION: Taguchi methods are statistical methods developed by Genichi Taguchi to improve the quality of manufactured goods, and more recently also applied to, engineering, biotechnology, marketing and advertising. Professional statisticians have welcomed the goals and improvements brought about by Taguchi methods, particularly by Taguchis development of designs for studying variation, but have criticized the inefficiency of some of Taguchis proposals. Taguchis work includes three principal contributions to statistics: A specific loss function see Taguchi loss function; The philosophy of off-line quality control; and Innovations in the design of experiments. Loss functions Loss functions in statistical theory Traditionally, statistical methods have relied on mean-unbiased estimators of treatment effects: Under the conditions of the Gauss-Markov theorem, least squares estimators have minimum variance among all mean-unbiased estimators. The emphasis on comparisons of means also draws (limiting) comfort from the law of large numbers, according to which the sample means converge to the true mean. Fishers textbook on the design of experiments emphasized comparisons of treatment means. Gauss proved that the sample-mean minimizes the expected squared-error loss-function (while Laplace proved that a median-unbiased estimator minimizes the absolute-error loss function). In statistical theory, the central role of the loss function was renewed by the statistical decision theory of Abraham Wald. However, loss functions were avoided by Ronald A. Fisher.[6] Taguchis use of loss functions Taguchi knew statistical theory mainly from the followers of Ronald A. Fisher, who also avoided loss functions. Reacting to Fishers methods in the design of experiments, Taguchi interpreted Fishers methods as being adapted for seeking to improve the mean outcome of a process. Indeed, Fishers work had been largely motivated by programmes to compare agricultural yields under different treatments and blocks, and such experiments were done as part of a long-term programme to improve harvests. However, Taguchi realised that in much industrial production, there is a need to produce an outcome on target, for example, to machine a hole to a specified diameter, or to manufacture a cell to produce a given voltage. He also realised, as had Walter A. Shewhart and others before him, that excessive variation lay at the root of poor manufactured quality and that reacting to individual items inside and outside specification was counterproductive. He therefore argued that quality engineering should start with an understanding of quality costs in various situations. In much conventional industrial engineering, the quality costs are simply represented by the number of items outside specification multiplied by the cost of rework or scrap. However, Taguchi insisted that manufacturers broaden their horizons to consider cost to society. Though the short-term costs may simply be those of non-conformance, any item manufactured away from nominal would result in some loss to the customer or the wider community through early wear-out; difficulties in interfacing with other parts, themselves probably wide of nominal; or the need to build in safety margins. These losses are externalities and are usually ignored by manufacturers, which are more interested in their private costs than social costs. Such externalities prevent markets from operating efficiently, according to analyses of public economics. Taguchi argued that such losses would in evitably find their way back to the originating corporation (in an effect similar to the tragedy of the commons), and that by working to minimise them, manufacturers would enhance brand reputation, win markets and generate profits. Such losses are, of course, very small when an item is near to negligible. Donald J. Wheeler characterised the region within specification limits as where we deny that losses exist. As we diverge from nominal, losses grow until the point where losses are too great to deny and the specification limit is drawn. All these losses are, as W. Edwards Deming would describe them, unknown and unknowable, but Taguchi wanted to find a useful way of representing them statistically. Taguchi specified three situations: Larger the better (for example, agricultural yield); Smaller the better (for example, carbon dioxide emissions); and On-target, minimum-variation (for example, a mating part in an assembly). The first two cases are represented by simple monotonic loss functions. In the third case, Taguchi adopted a squared-error loss function for several reasons: It is the first symmetric term in the Taylor series expansion of real analytic loss-functions. Total loss is measured by the variance. As variance is additive (for uncorrelated random variables), the total loss is an additive measurement of cost (for uncorrelated random variables). The squared-error loss function is widely used in statistics, following Gausss use of the squared-error loss function in justifying the method of least squares. Reception of Taguchis ideas by statisticians Though many of Taguchis concerns and conclusions are welcomed by statisticians and economists, some ideas have been especially criticized. For example, Taguchis recommendation that industrial experiments maximise some signal-to-noise ratio (representing the magnitude of the mean of a process compared to its variation) has been criticized widely. Off-line quality control Taguchis rule for manufacturing Taguchi realized that the best opportunity to eliminate variation is during the design of a product and its manufacturing process. Consequently, he developed a strategy for quality engineering that can be used in both contexts. The process has three stages: System design Parameter design Tolerance design System design This is design at the conceptual level, involving creativity and innovation. Parameter design Once the concept is established, the nominal values of the various dimensions and design parameters need to be set, the detail design phase of conventional engineering. Taguchis radical insight was that the exact choice of values required is under-specified by the performance requirements of the system. In many circumstances, this allows the parameters to be chosen so as to minimise the effects on performance arising from variation in manufacture, environment and cumulative damage. This is sometimes called robustification. Tolerance design With a successfully completed parameter design, and an understanding of the effect that the various parameters have on performance, resources can be focused on reducing and controlling variation in the critical few dimensions (see Pareto principle). Design of experiments Taguchi developed his experimental theories independently. Taguchi read works following R. A. Fisher only in 1954. Taguchis framework for design of experiments is idiosyncratic and often flawed, but contains much that is of enormous value. He made a number of innovations. Outer arrays Taguchis designs aimed to allow greater understanding of variation than did many of the traditional designs from the analysis of variance (following Fisher). Taguchi contended that conventional sampling is inadequate here as there is no way of obtaining a random sample of future conditions.[7] In Fishers design of experiments and analysis of variance, experiments aim to reduce the influence of nuisance factors to allow comparisons of the mean treatment-effects. Variation becomes even more central in Taguchis thinking. Taguchi proposed extending each experiment with an outer array (possibly an orthogonal array); the outer array should simulate the random environment in which the product would function. This is an example of judgmental sampling. Many quality specialists have been using outer arrays. Later innovations in outer arrays resulted in compounded noise. This involves combining a few noise factors to create two levels in the outer array: First, noise factors that drive output lower, and second, noise factors that drive output higher. Compounded noise simulates the extremes of noise variation but uses fewer experimental runs than would previous Taguchi designs. Management of interactions Interactions, as treated by Taguchi Many of the orthogonal arrays that Taguchi has advocated are saturated arrays, allowing no scope for estimation of interactions. This is a continuing topic of controversy. However, this is only true for control factors or factors in the inner array. By combining an inner array of control factors with an outer array of noise factors, Taguchis approach provides full information on control-by-noise interactions, it is claimed. Taguchi argues that such interactions have the greatest importance in achieving a design that is robust to noise factor variation. The Taguchi approach provides more complete interaction information than typical fractional factorial designs, its adherents claim. * Followers of Taguchi argue that the designs offer rapid results and that interactions can be eliminated by proper choice of quality characteristics. That notwithstanding, a confirmation experiment offers protection against any residual interactions. If the quality characteristic represents the energy transformation of the system, then the likelihood of control factor-by-control factor interactions is greatly reduced, since energy is additive. Inefficencies of Taguchis designs * Interactions are part of the real world. In Taguchis arrays, interactions are confounded and difficult to resolve. Statisticians in response surface methodology (RSM) advocate the sequential assembly of designs: In the RSM approach, a screening design is followed by a follow-up design that resolves only the confounded interactions that are judged to merit resolution. A second follow-up design may be added, time and resources allowing, to explore possible high-order univariate effects of the remaining variables, as high-order univariate effects are less likely in variables already eliminated for having no linear effect. With the economy of screening designs and the flexibility of follow-up designs, sequential designs have great statistical efficiency. The sequential designs of response surface methodology require far fewer experimental runs than would a sequence of Taguchis designs.[ TAGUCHI METHODS There has been a great deal of controversy about Genichi Taguchis methodology since it was first introduced in the United States. This controversy has lessened considerably in recent years due to modifications and extensions of his methodology. The main controversy, however, is still about Taguchis statistical methods, not about his philosophical concepts concerning quality or robust design. Furthermore, it is generally accepted that Taguchis philosophy has promoted, on a worldwide scale, the design of experiments for quality improvement upstream, or at the product and process design stage. Taguchis philosophy and methods support, and are consistent with, the Japanese quality control approach that asserts that higher quality generally results in lower cost. This is in contrast to the widely prevailing view in the United States that asserts that quality improvement is associated with higher cost. Furthermore, Taguchis philosophy and methods support the Japanese approach to move quality improvement upstream. Taguchis methods help design engineers build quality into products and processes. As George Box, Soren Bisgaard, and Conrad Fung observed: Today the ultimate goal of quality improvement is to design quality into every product and process and to follow up at every stage from design to final manufacture and sale. An important element is the extensive and innovative use of statistically designed experiments. TAGUCHIS DEFINITION OF QUALITY The old traditional definition of quality states quality is conformance to specifications. This definition was expanded by Joseph M. Juran (1904-) in 1974 and then by the American Society for Quality Control (ASQC) in 1983. Juran observed that quality is fitness for use. The ASQC defined quality as the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy given needs. Taguchi presented another definition of quality. His definition stressed the losses associated with a product. Taguchi stated that quality is the loss a product causes to society after being shipped, other than losses caused by its intrinsic functions. Taguchi asserted that losses in his definition should be restricted to two categories: (1) loss caused by variability of function, and (2) loss caused by harmful side effects. Taguchi is saying that a product or service has good quality if it performs its intended functions without variability, and causes little loss through harmful side effects, including the cost of using it. It must be kept in mind here that society includes both the manufacturer and the customer. Loss associated with function variability includes, for example, energy and time (problem fixing), and money (replacement cost of parts). Losses associated with harmful side effects could be market shares for the manufacturer and/or the physical effects, such as of the drug thalidomide, for the consumer. Consequently, a company should provide products and services such that possible losses to society are minimized, or, the purpose of quality improvement is to discover innovative ways of designing products and processes that will save society more than they cost in the long run. The concept of reliability is appropriate here. The next section will clearly show that Taguchis loss function yields an operational definition of the term loss to society in his definition of quality. TAGUCHIS LOSS FUNCTION We have seen that Taguchis quality philosophy strongly emphasizes losses or costs. W. H. Moore asserted that this is an enlightened approach that embodies three important premises: for every product quality characteristic there is a target value which results in the smallest loss; deviations from target value always results in increased loss to society; [and] loss should be measured in monetary units (dollars, pesos, francs, etc.). Figure I depicts Taguchis typically loss function. The figure also contrasts Taguchis function with the traditional view that states there are no losses if specifications are met. Taguchis Loss Function It can be seen that small deviations from the target value result in small losses. These losses, however, increase in a nonlinear fashion as deviations from the target value increase. The function shown above is a simple quadratic equation that compares the measured value of a unit of output Y to the target T.: Essentially, this equation states that the loss is proportional to the square of the deviation of the measured value, Y, from the target value, T. This implies that any deviation from the target (based on customers desires and needs) will diminish customer satisfaction. This is in contrast to the traditional definition of quality that states that quality is conformance to specifications. It should be recognized that the constant k can be determined if the value of L(Y) associated with some Y value are both known. Of course, under many circumstances a quadratic function is only an approximation. Since Taguchis loss function is presented in monetary terms, it provides a common language for all the departments or components within a company. Finally, the loss function can be used to define performance measures of a quality characteristic of a product or service. This property of Taguchis loss function will be taken up in the next section. But to anticipate the discussion of this property, Taguchis quadratic function can be converted to: This can be accomplished by assuming Y has some probability distribution with mean, a and variance o.2 This second mathematical expression states that average or expected loss is due either to process variation or to being off target (called bias), or both. TAGUCHI, ROBUST DESIGN, AND THEÂ  DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS Taguchi asserted that the development of his methods of experimental design started in Japan about 1948. These methods were then refined over the next several decades. They were introduced in the United States around 1980. Although, Taguchis approach was built on traditional concepts of design of experiments (DOE), such as factorial and fractional factorial designs and orthogonal arrays, he created and promoted some new DOE techniques such as signal-to-noise ratios, robust designs, and parameter and tolerance designs. Some experts in the field have shown that some of these techniques, especially signal-to-noise ratios, are not optimal under certain conditions. Nonetheless, Taguchis ideas concerning robust design and the design of experiments will now be discussed. DOE is a body of statistical techniques for the effective and efficient collection of data for a number of purposes. Two significant ones are the investigation of research hypotheses and the accurate determination of the relative effects of the many different factors that influence the quality of a product or process. DOE can be employed in both the product design phase and production phase. A crucial component of quality is a products ability to perform its tasks under a variety of conditions. Furthermore, the operating environmental conditions are usually beyond the control of the product designers, and, therefore robust designs are essential. Robust designs are based on the use of DOE techniques for finding product parameter settings (e.g., temperature settings or drill speeds), which enable products to be resilient to changes and variations in working environments. It is generally recognized that Taguchi deserves much of the credit for introducing the statistical study of robust design. We have seen how Taguchis loss function sets variation reduction as a primary goal for quality improvement. Taguchis DOE techniques employ the loss function concept to investigate both product parameters and key environmental factors. His DOE techniques are part of his philosophy of achieving economical quality design. To achieve economical product quality design, Taguchi proposed three phases: system design, parameter design, and tolerance design. In the first phase, system design, design engineers use their practical experience, along with scientific and engineering principles, to create a viably functional design. To elaborate, system design uses current technology, processes, materials, and engineering methods to define and construct a new system. The system can be a new product or process, or an improved modification of an existing product or process. The parameter design phase determines the optimal settings for the product or process parameters. These parameters have been identified during the system design phase. DOE methods are applied here to determine the optimal parameter settings. Taguchi constructed a limited number of experimental designs, from which U.S. engineers have found it easy to select and apply in their manufacturing environments. The goal of the parameter design is to design a robust product or process, which, as a result of minimizing performance variation, minimizes manufacturing and product lifetime costs. Robust design means that the performance of the product or process is insensitive to noise factors such as variation in environmental conditions, machine wear, or product to-product variation due to raw material differences. Taguchis DOE parameter design techniques are used to determine which controllable factors and which noise factors are the significant variables. The aim is to set the controllable factors at those levels that will result in a product or process being robust with respect to the noise factors. In our previous discussion of Taguchis loss function, two equations were discussed. It was observed that the second equation could be used to establish quality performance measures that permit the optimization of a given products quality characteristic. In improving quality, both the average response of a quality and its variation are important. The second equation suggests that it may be advantageous to combine both the average response and variation into a single measure. And Taguchi did this with his signal-to-noise ratios (S/N). Consequently, Taguchis approach is to select design parameter levels that will maximize the appropriate S/N ratio. These S/N ratios can be used to get closer to a given target value (such as tensile strength or baked tile dimensions), or to reduce variation in the products quality characteristic(s). For example, one S/N ratio corresponds to what Taguchi called nominal is best. Such a ratio is selected when a specific target value, such as tensile strength, is the design goal. For the nominal is best case, Taguchi recommended finding an adjustment factor (some parameter setting) that will eliminate the bias discussed in the second equation. Sometimes a factor can be found that will control the average response without affecting the variance. If this is the case, our second equation tells us that the expected loss becomes: Consequently, the aim now is to reduce the variation. Therefore, Taguchis S/N ratio is: where S 2 is the samples standard deviation. In this formula, by minimizing S 2 , 10 log 10 S 2 , is maximized. Recall that all of Taguchis S/N ratios are to be maximized. Finally, a few brief comments concerning the tolerance design phase. This phase establishes tolerances, or specification limits, for either the product or process parameters that have been identified as critical during the second phase, the parameter design phase. The goal here is to establish tolerances wide enough to reduce manufacturing costs, while at the same time assuring that the product or process characteristics are within certain bounds. EXAMPLES AND CONCLUSIONS As Thomas P. Ryan has stated, Taguchi at the very least, has focused our attention on new objectives in achieving quality improvement. The statistical tools for accomplishing these objectives will likely continue to be developed. Quality management gurus, such as W. Edwards Deming (1900-1993) and Kaoru Ishikawa (1915-), have stressed the importance of continuous quality improvement by concentrating on processes upstream. This is a fundamental break with the traditional practice of relying on inspection downstream. Taguchi emphasized the importance of DOE in improving the quality of the engineering design of products and processes. As previously mentioned, however, his methods are frequently statistically inefficient and cumbersome. Nonetheless, Taguchis design of experiments have been widely applied and theoretically refined and extended. Two application cases and one refinement example will now be discussed. K. N. Anand, in an article in Quality Engineering, discussed a welding problem. Welding was performed to repair cracks and blown holes on the cast-iron housing of an assembled electrical machine. Customers wanted a defect-free quality weld, however the welding process had resulted in a fairly high percentage of welding defects. Management and welders identified five variables and two interactions that were considered the key factors in improving quality. A Taguchi orthogonal design was performed resulting in the identification of two highly significant interactions and a defect-free welding process. The second application, presented by M. W. Sonius and B. W. Tew in a Quality Engineering article, involved reducing stress components in the connection between a composite component and a metallic end fitting for a composite structure. Bonding, pinning, or riveting the fitting in place traditionally made the connections. Nine significant variables that could affect the performance of the entrapped fiber connections were identified and a Taguchi experimental design was performed. The experiment identified two of the nine factors and their respective optimal settings. Therefore, stress levels were significantly reduced. The theoretical refinement example involves Taguchi robust designs. We have seen where such a design can result in products and processes that are insensitive to noise factors. Using Taguchis quadratic loss function, however, may provide a poor approximation of true loss and suboptimal product or process quality. John F. Kros and Christina M. Mastrangelo established relationships between nonquadratic loss functions and Taguchis signal-to-noise ratios. Applying these relationships in an experimental design can change the recommended selection of the respective settings of the key parameters and result in smaller losses.

Opening Paragraphs for a “Heroes” Essay

A hero is defined as a man of distinguished courage or ability, admired for his brave deeds and noble qualities. People desire someone to admire at certain times to help lead and guide them. The many paths of life help to shape heroes. They can be found anywhere from a police officer to a football player. Everyday people will look for them for inspiration for themselves. Heroes push us to strive for more out of life while also helping us through tough times.Heroes are very important to our way of life and shape our view of life. People need heroes for three reasons: devastation, tragedy and losses. The devastation of an event can cause a person to need a hero, someone to look to for answers. When a person encounters a tragedy, they also try to look to someone as a solution for their problems. People encounter losses everyday and each day they seek guidance. In each of the above situations, persons yearn for a hero. Certain events in our life can have profound effects on us.A lot of t ime, it is from devastating events. Devastating events can be extremely disappointing and heart wrenching. Battling our way out of these events can truly show the heart of a person. Heroes shine in times such as these. They battle through the hardest of adversity and win. These adversities can range from the simple to the momentous. When devastation occurs, persons are in a hole, looking for a way out and find their shining hero at the end to help save them.This is where the heroes come in making for a great ending and promising future. Heroes in this situation are made through experience and knowledge of how hard such devastation can be. People then look to them to see how they got through it and can follow their example. When a disappointment occurs, persons need to know that there is hope, hope knowing that someone else overcame the same obstacle. We all encounter devastations but tragedies are encountered less often.

Contemporary politics with a focus on Europe Essay

Contemporary politics with a focus on Europe Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Contemporary comparative politics can only be well understood through a critical analysis of the European politics right from the ancient time to the current world. European politics brings a clear picture of different elements and features of politics because it is the origin of all forms of politics that have been in existence in the world. The post-1945 political systems, wars and economic movements in Europe give a detailed explanation of contemporary issues in politics. The issue of democracy is one of the most common issue that is well addressed by the analyzing the political situations in European, there a lot of studies that have been conducted in relation to that and thus there is detailed information about the issue of democracy. Other issues like the relationship between the economy and the government, and the issue of modern monopoly states are well explained through the wide topic of European politics. The object of the paper is to discuss the surrender paradox using the German case, the explanation of modern monopoly states by the economist, explanation of paradox of democratic Exuberance, explanation of market failure and government failure and lastly, the explanation of the linkage and the demand of democracy. Surrender paradox using the German case   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The surrender paradox is well explained using the German case and a brief explanation of the German case would offer a good platform for understanding the case well. The German surrender paradox means is derived from situation where the Germans were not supposed to surrender but it was a must for them to surrender. The statement sounds contradicting but it is the statement that explains the whole concept of surrender paradox. The Germans were the main party that was involved in the Second World War, with the leadership of Hitler and the military and economic strength that Germans had, it managed to conquer many states and territories in the war (Hart, 45).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Hitler had vowed that he will never surrender to any military group in his life as the German leader. This made him to involve all the Germans who were also referred to as Nazi people in the war, many young men were involved as soldiers while the rest were involved indirect through provision of resources. However, the energy of Hitler in the war lusted until 1944. The Nazi troops had conquered many territories during the war and thus they were much diverted in many place of Europe, this made it easy for the Allies who were fighting them to conquer them. There are a number of reasons that made the Germans to surrender, the pearl harbor attack by the Japanese was one of the main reason, this because the United State who were very powerful got involved in the war. The USSR broke form the German side and thus it started attacking Germany on one side, the France and Italy troops also attacked the Germans on another side. The United States and t he allies eventually managed to push Germany out of all territories that it had occupied. As a result of this failure the German were forced to retreat to their own territory and their leader by the name Hitler committed suicide to avoid the shame of surrender and the punishment which the Allies could subject to him. He left his assistant in command who signed the unconditional surrender agreement which marked the end of war in Europe. The above German case gives a clear picture of surrender paradox especially in the statement which stated that the Germans could not surrender but it was a must for them to surrender. Origin of modern monopoly states according to economist   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Monopoly states is where the government gains a full control of the territory it is ruling including the people in that territory. There is the old monopoly state which was exercised in 19th century and the modern monopoly state that is currently exercised. The origin of modern monopoly states is addressed by the historian, politicians and economist but they all address the issue in different perspectives. In this paper the economist perspective on the origin of modern monopoly states will be the main focus. Many economists had given their views concerning the origin of monopoly states but they all give the same idea and that is why it is called the economist modern monopoly states perspective (Bell, 12). Economists deal with the issue of economy when they are addressing any issue irrespective of the origin of the topic. In this case, the economist addresses the origin of modern monopoly states in relation to economic sector that happened in 1930s.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The economist explains that in 1930, the famous economic depression occurred. The depression affected the economy of the whole world in a greater way where many countries were left unstable in their economy. The politicians and the economist at that time urged the government not to interfere with the situation because it would solve itself. The government had no other option but to let the situation solve itself. However, instead of the situation going back to normal, it started deteriorating, citizens started complaining on the economic situation in the world and that is where the government took charge of the situation. The economist later concluded that the government intervention was the only way to control the economic crises.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This conclusion gave the government the total power to control all sectors of economy because it initially concentrated more on the security and political part of the country. That is where the modern monopoly states emerged because the government gained the power to control the all areas of countries economy (Beaudreau, 112). Modern monopoly states can also be associated with socialism though some features of socialism are not included in the modern monopoly states. The overall perspective of the origin of modern monopoly states is the 1930s depression that led to economic crises in the whole world. The historian holds a different view because they explains that the modern monopoly states originated form the two world wars and other political factors and that is where the difference comes between the historian and economist point of view in this issue. Paradox of Democratic Exuberance   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   European political history gives a clear picture of the paradox of democratic exuberance in the past and in the modern world. A lot of studies have been done on the issue of democracy where democracy in retreat history book by Joshua J gives a detailed concept of paradox of exuberance. Paradox of democratic exuberance means the cheerfulness of having a democracy which indeed is of no help to the people. The situation was identified during the Post-1945 during the development of democracy in many European countries. Democracy means ruling of people where people of middle class are given a chance to raise their views on issues of their concern. The paradox of democratic exuberance is found in many situations and the common one is when the political leaders go against the democracy. Violation of democracy by the political leaders means that the rights of middle class people are prone to violation and thus they will just the boosting of democr acy which is of no help. A good example is the demonstrations that were organized in Philistines and Thailand because of the misuse of democracy by the leaders. Irrespective of the kind of democracy, it should protect the middle class people and they should have voice on government matters. When a democracy fails to meet the above requirements, irrespective of its structure, the situation is referred to as paradox of democratic exuberance. Paradox of democratic exuberance is well explained by the people of middle class and the way it favors them. If it is does not benefit them in any way, then it becomes a democratic paradox. Generally, people should be cheerful for a democracy that is important to them (Carens, 6). Market failure and government failure   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Market and government failure are interrelated and each term can explain another. Market failure can cause government failure and government failure can cause market failure and they are both common in the current world. Market failure refers to a situation where the quantity demanded in the market by consumers exceeds the quantity supplied by the suppliers (Winston, 33). On the other hand, government failure refers to a condition where the government intervention in the market makes the market condition to be worse. In most cases the political situation in any given country determines the failure or success of any market. The paper will mainly concentrate with how government failure can cause market failure because the topic relates to political issues.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There are many situations where the government can cause market failure. The main one is political self-interest. When politicians have self-interest like gaining fame, exploring more territories and gaining financially, they can make decisions that can cause market failure instead of success. A good example is the 19030s depression crisis (Kurlantzick, 331). The crisis was caused by political self-interest where leaders used all the finance of their countries in order to finance the war without any consideration of the economic situation. This led the 1930s depression which marked the greatest market failure ever in the world.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Market failure that is as a result of government failure can also be caused by careless investments by the government in the market. A government may decide to finance a certain deteriorating company. The financing of the particular company makes it to become a monopoly in the market and as a result of that; many potential investors in the market are scared away and this cause an overall market failure. The government has a tendency of addressing economic problems using short term plans and goals. This is very dangerous because it causes future market failure which is very hard to solve. The short term goals that were used to handle the 19th and 20th century market problems are the main causes of today market failure. The market failure that is caused by other factors other than the government intervention can cause market failure; this is because the government uses a lot of funds to finance the market and these results to government fail ure (Kotsonis, 55). Linkage and demand for democracy   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Demand for democracy emerged when people of the middle class started demanding for their rights. The demand of democracy can be linked with the development of democracy from ancient times. The development of democracy started during the time of village’s administration to the time of empire administration. However, some countries were left behind in this development and that is why the issue of demand of democracy started. Officially this demand started after the fall of Berlin war during the world war. People of different countries compared their countries with countries that were developed like Canada and United States. They identified that the countries which were developed had well established democracies and thus they demanded for democracy. They suggested for democracies that would consider their rights and democracies that could give them a chance to raise their views in the government. Human rights organizations were also in the first line in the demand of democracy and this boosted the efforts of the middle class people in this demand. This led to the establishment of new democracies which were different but they all considered the issue of equality and safeguarding human rights. The demand led to the establishment of two types of democracies, direct and representative, according to the type of government structure that had been established in those countries (Boix, 440). Conclusion   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To wrap it up, contemporary comparative of politics focusing in Europe is a wide topic that covers many areas of political sectors in Europe and the whole world at large. Every situation that happened in the post-1945 in Europe has a significant meaning in this topic. For instance, the German surrender incident explains the whole concept of surrender paradox. Issues like the modern monopoly, paradox of democratic exuberance and demand for democracy are well understood though critical analysis of European political issues from ancient times to the current time. References Hart, R., Hart, S., & In O’Neill, R. J. World War II. New York: Rosen Pub, 2010 Boix, Carles and Susan Stokes. Endogenous Democratization. World Politics. 2013 55: 5-549, doi:10.1353/wp.2003.0019. Bell, Daniel. The Coming of Post-Industrial Society. A Venture in Social Forecasting. New York: Basic Books, press 1999 Kurlantzick, Joshua. Democracy in Retreat: The Revolt of the Middle Class and the Worldwide Decline of Representative Government. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2013. Print. Kotsonis, Yanni. States of Obligation: Taxes and Citizenship in the Russian Empire and Early Soviet Republic. , 2014. Print. Beaudreau, Bernard C. How the Republicans Caused the Stock Market Crash of 1929: Gpt’s, Failed Transitions, and Commercial Policy. New York: iUniverse, Inc, 2005. Print Winston, Clifford. Government Failure Versus Market Failure: Microeconomics Policy Research and Government Performance. Washington, D.C: AEI-Brookings Joint Center for Regulatory Studies, 2006. Internet resource. Carens, Joseph H. Democracy and Possessive Individualism: The Intellectual Legacy of C.b. Macpherson. Albany: State Univ. of New York Press, 1993. Print. Source document

Learning Prompted By Language Creates An Optimal Space For...

Within the ZPD, Vygotsky believes that learning prompted by language creates an optimal space for supporting cognitive development. As a result, learning takes on a social component, and the child can and will benefit from a group environment. Looking at it a step further, the social aspect explains why this learning theory is considered culturally comprehensive. When children take part in a learning activity, they benefit from the instruction and aid of others–be it teachers or peers. In an ideal setting, children work together as a social group, with each member contributing a different aspect to the learning process. In turn, you have children of different backgrounds and cultures working together succinctly to come up with a joint solution. In the process, they have subconsciously shared little bits of themselves–making it a culturally rich learning process. (Shabani, 2010, p. 238). As the collaboration continues, the ZPD for the child will begin to shrink–i ndicating an increase of knowledge. Within the pedagogical world, many of the accepted educational standards and methods have been based on theorists such as Jean Piaget and John Dewey. The omission of Vygotsky is most likely due to the lack of fully tested research that has been done with his work. As it stands, the legacy of Vygotsky is an educational roadmap that has only been vetted in recent decades. (Stetsenko, 2009, p. 7). That said, because Vygotsky makes a theory that is based specifically on the relationShow MoreRelatedLev Vygotsky And The Zone Of Proximal Development1522 Words   |  7 PagesProximal Development Under normal circumstances, a child will physically develop without outside assistance. While there can be variations by way of culture, class, and ability, it is difficult to contest that human nature is the driving force behind the bodily changes that take place from birth until adulthood. In contrast, when it comes to determining the ways in which a child thinks and learns, there are numerous theories on what primarily influences cognitive growth and development. One theoristRead MoreContemporary Issues in Management Accounting211377 Words   |  846 Pagesinterested in gaining direct insights into specialized management accounting areas will Wnd this book to be an especially valuable reference source. Established Welds cannot grow in the absence of committed Wgureheads who tirelessly contribute to their development. One individual who has contributed immensely to management accounting thought and practice over the course of more than four decades is Michael Bromwich. Bromwich, w ho is about to retire as CIMA Professor of Accounting and Financial ManagementRead MoreDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 PagesINTRODUCTION 1 3 THE CRITICAL ROLE OF MANAGEMENT SKILLS The Importance of Competent Managers 6 The Skills of Effective Managers 7 Essential Management Skills 8 What Are Management Skills? 9 Improving Management Skills 12 An Approach to Skill Development 13 Leadership and Management 16 Contents of the Book 18 Organization of the Book 19 Practice and Application 21 Diversity and Individual Differences 21 Summary 23 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL 24 Diagnostic Survey and Exercises 24 Personal AssessmentRead MoreImpacts of Information Technology on Individuals, Organizations and Societies21097 Words   |  85 PagesIT Applications and Infrastructure Security Impacts of IT on Individuals, Organizations, and Society Impacts of IT on Individuals, Organizations, and Society Movie Piracy Learning Objectives 17.1 Perspectives on IT Impacts 17.2 IT Is Eliminating the Barriers of Time, After studying this chapter, you will be able to: Space, and Distance Understand the changes that take place in the workplace and the lives of individuals when information technology eliminates geographical and spatial barriersRead MoreManaging Information Technology (7th Edition)239873 Words   |  960 PagesCustom Machine Company, Inc.: Selection of an Information Technology Platform CASE STUDY I-2 VoIP2.biz, Inc.: Deciding on the Next Steps for a VoIP Supplier CASE STUDY I-3 The VoIP Adoption at Butler University CASE STUDY I-4 Supporting Mobile Health Clinics: The Children’s Health Fund of New York City CASE STUDY I-5 Data Governance at InsuraCorp CASE STUDY I-6 H.H. Gregg’s Appliances, Inc.: Deciding on a New Information Technology Platform CASE STUDY I-7 MidsouthRead MoreOverview of Hrm93778 Words   |  376 Pagesstudying this as a supporting subject for their bachelor degree program. This course is designed to provide you the foundations of HRM whether you intend to work in HRM or not, most of these elements will affect you at some point in your career. Either you will be working with some organizations or having people working for you, in both cases you will be dealing with people. To be understandable and lively means that we need to communicate you. We start every chapter with learning objectives. TheRead MoreInnovators Dna84615 Words   |  339 Pagesfresh thinking that is the root of innovation. It has dozens of simple tricks that any person and any team can use today to discover the new ideas that solve the important problems. Buy it now and read it tonight. Tomorrow you will learn more, create more, inspire more.† Chairman of the Executive Committee, Intuit Inc. â€Å" e Innovator’s DNA sheds new light on the once-mysterious art of innovation by showing that successful innovators exhibit common behavioral habits—habits that can boostRead MoreMarketing Management130471 Words   |  522 PagesTechniques of marketing research Applications of marketing research Preparation of marketing research report Online marketing E-commerce Trends in marketing Page No. Marketing management – an introduction Unit structure: 1. Introduction 2. Learning Objectives 3. Marketing Management 3.1. Evolution of marketing management 3.2. The Role of Marketing 3.3. Marketing concepts 3.4. The Marketing Mix (The 4 P s Of Marketing) 3.5. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and Ethics in Marketing 4. HaveRead MoreStrategic Human Resource Management View.Pdf Uploaded Successfully133347 Words   |  534 PagesCompany iii iv Table of Contents SECTION ONE ................................................................. 1 An Investment Perspective and Human Resources .... 2 HUMAN RESOURCE INVESTMENT CONSIDERATIONS ...6 INVESTMENTS IN TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT ..... 14 INVESTMENT PRACTICES FOR IMPROVED RETENTION ............................................................ 32 INVESTMENTS IN JOB-SECURE WORKFORCES .......... 42 ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS OF EMPLOYMENT PRACTICES ...............................Read MoreSales and Marketing for Financial Institutions80443 Words   |  322 Pages or transmitted in any form or by any means, whether electronic, mechanical or otherwise, without the prior written permission of ASX Limited. Kaplan Higher Education acknowledges the support of Morningstar, EBSCO Australia and ProQuest in the development of its course material. Welcome Congratulations on choosing to complete your postgraduate studies with Kaplan. As an accredited higher education institution we specialise in postgraduate courses in applied finance and financial planning and