What impact did the pursuit of an aggressive foreign policy have on the Italian people, 1922-39 Essay Example

What impact did the pursuit of an aggressive foreign policy have on the Italian people, 1922-39? Essay After being appointed Prime Minister by the King Victor Emmanuel in October 1922, Benito Mussolini went about establishing a firm dictatorship. Soon after he was declared PM, he enforced an aggressive foreign policy that would have major effects, both positive and negative, on the Italian people. Through his foreign policy, Mussolini wanted to make Italy a respectable, powerful country. He wanted to dominate the Mediterranean by breaking free of the bars that Britain and France had enforced and part of Africa, especially Abyssinia, believing that land was available for Italy to expand into and increase its Empire. Mussolinis aggressive foreign policy first became clear during the Corfu incident of August 1923. After heavily bombarding the Greek island and killing at least 15 civilians, the Italians were ordered to withdraw by the League of Nations and Greece were made to apologise and pay the reparations of 50 million lira. With the Italians withdrawing from Corfu, they had not gained any land however, it was still seen as a victory by the Italian people and it meant that Mussolini had gained more support to launch further attacks in the future. Mussolinis aggressiveness again continued into 1935 where he launched his attack on Abyssinia, the main reasons behind it being to increase Italian prestige and to develop the cult of the Duce. There was also the possibility that oil was available in the African country. At first, there was much support for the war. It was popular amongst the Italian people as they too, like Mussolini, wanted Italy to increase its empire. However, resources soon became low and Mussolini appealed to the Italian people to help provide the resources Italy required. He launched the campaign of women donating their wedding rings in return for a tin replica. The gold that was collected from these rings could then be used to gain money to provide more resources for the Italian attack. The campaign was extremely successful with over 250,000 women in Rome alone donating their rings. This showed that there was a sense of war pride amongst the Italian people, supporting the war in a bid of Italy increasing its empire. 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However, the L.O.N. did not apply the sanction of oil and this is what allowed Mussolini to continue producing the industrial requirements for the war. It was a great victory and was possibly Mussolinis finest hour. He was arguably at the peak of his career. The sanctions that the league applied had rallied the nation together and the people of Italy felt that they had each played a part in the victory. Thousands of people attended Mussolinis speech in Rome announcing the new empire. There was a real sense of pride amongst the people and they strongly believed that Italy was on the way up. However, what first seemed like a strong victory actually turned out to have a massive effect on Italy. The Abyssinian war was very costly and the budget deficit rose from 2.5billion lire to 16 billion lire after the war meaning that there was less government spending available to the people of Italy. There was a drain on military resources which we were desperately needed if Italy were to go to war with Britain and France and in 1936, the lira devalued by 40 per cent. Although there was a sense of national pride amongst Italy for claiming the Abyssinian Empire, no-one actually enlisted to fight in it. This shows how if anything, the war was quite unpopular. In conclusion, Mussolini didnt really gain that much from the invasion of Abyssinia. It did bring the nation together at first, through mass speeches and the wedding ring campaign however it had more of a negative than positive effect on the Italian people in the long run due to the massive costs which affected the economy and de valued the lira. As well as this, Italy had to fight a guerrilla war until Abyssinia was lost to the British in 1941 showing how Italy didnt even gain the Abyssinian empire and were constantly battling against rebels, meaning more costs were used, to try and claim it. After asserting his power in Abyssinia, Mussolini now looked to help the Spanish right-wing governments during the Spanish civil war in 1936-39. By supporting the right-wing government, Mussolini hoped to extend the Fascist influence in Spain, believing a defeat of the left-wing could be seen as another glorious triumph for Fascism amongst the Italian people. Mussolinis commitment was very strong and by 1937, he had applied 50,000 troops, 950 tanks, 7663 motor vehicles and 91 warships. Over 14 billion lira had been spent. However, similar to the Abyssinian war, there were both advantages and disadvantages to Italy becoming involved in the civil war. Mussolini had gained and ally in a strategic position and there was an improvement on the link between Italy and Nazi Germany. The Italian influence had been increased and Italy was on the winning side again. This meant that Mussolini could claim victory and this pleased the people in Italy as they believed that Italy was on the up, increasing its empire in Africa and improving its relationship with surrounding countries. However, yet again the war was very expensive to Italy. It cost 14 billion lira, which was half a years tax revenue so this meant that there could be less spending on Italy and its people back in the country. The lira became devalued and much of Italys weapons had been used. Italy was the only country with fewer weapons in 1939 than in 1936. This shows how their commitment in the Spanish civil war had made them unprepared for future world war. What first was seen as an excellent victory, actually turned out to have little gain for Italy, especially its people who did not achieve anything from it. Franco, the fascist leader of the Spanish right wing, only promised neutrality in any war between Italy and another power, not support. 6,000 people died and there was an increased tension with Britain who was already unhappy about the incident in Abyssinia. Looking at the Spanish civil war from a neutral point of view, it can be said that Mussolinis aggressive foreign policy had left the It alian economy in tatters and made Italy unprepared for future war. During these wars, propaganda and censorship were heavily applied to give the Italian people a false truth as to what was going on and to control the Italian peoples view of Mussolinis foreign policy. Propaganda was everywhere; newspapers, television, radio and posters were all sources for propaganda. For example, during the Abyssinian war, Mussolini said that his motive behind the attack was to civilise the people, however, by bombing Red Cross tents that were there to help the injured, it shows how Mussolini was not civilised himself so would be unable to civilise anyone else. The propaganda showed how Italy were civilising the Abyssinian people however censorship stopped the bombings of the Red Cross stations leaking into Italian media. Both were used again when the League of Nations applied sanctions on Italy. The Italian people were encouraged to work together to stay strong throughout the sanctions and after they had been lifted, many people saw Italy as being extremely powerfu l as they had won the war even with sanctions applied. This brought a real sense of nation pride amongst the people in Italy. As well as this, Mussolini highlighted the importance of Italy being the new roman empire. This was done to show the people how Italy was becoming as successful as what it once was during the time of roman Italy. Propaganda and censorship were there to censor what the Italian people saw and to give them a false truth so that the real motives behind Mussolinis foreign policy could be hidden and Italy could be portrayed as a powerful and dominant nation which would lead to more mass support in Italy. With Italy becoming more involved in wars and a future world war on the cards, Mussolini believed it was important to prepare the youths of Italy for future war as they were seen as the Fascists of the Future. Both boys and girls aged 6-21 were expected to become involved and they were trained very much like soldiers. They had to march, swear an oath to Mussolini and wear uniform. There was a real sense of them acting like an army and being untied with one another, with them becoming prepared to fight for Italy in future years to come. As well as this, Fascism also had an effect on children during their time in school. For example, third grade mathematics, for eight year olds, required children to answer questions like the glorious war in Africa lasted seven months. How many days is that? This highlights how Mussolini wanted to show to everyone in Italy what their country had achieved, battling in Africa to civilise the people. The cult of Mussolini was also present in schools with a portrait of him being displayed in every classroom showing how Mussolini and Fascism was everywhere. Throughout Mussolinis pursuit for an aggressive foreign policy, many things changed in Italy which had a serious effect on the Italian people. To begin with, the role of women was important in helping Italy become a powerful nation. For instance, the Battle for Births in 1927. The aims of this campaign were to increase Italys population from 37 million in 1920 to 60 million by 1950. This, according to Mussolini, would make Italy great and provide them with a substantial amount of soldiers for future wars in Mussolinis aggressive foreign policy plan. There was an increasing influence from the government to encourage people to marry and have as many children as possible in a family. For example, at a time where taxation was rising due to the heavy costs of the wars Italy were involved in, families did not have to pay income tax if they had 10 children or more. Contraceptives were limited and abortion was made illegal. The results from the Battle of Birth were average. Although the birt h rate continued to decline, the population rose to 45 million in 1940, and 47.5 million in 1950, 12.5 million short of the 60 million target. The average age of marriage rose and the marriage rate fell. This showed how although Mussolini stressed the importance of having a large amount of children in a marriage, many women did not agree and felt that he was trying to take their freedom away from them and simply use them as a reproducing tool. With Mussolini applying an aggressive foreign policy, he believed that it was important for Italy to become self sufficient or apply Autarky. This is when everything was produced for itself within the country. The reasons behind it were to increase nationalism, making Italy great and not dependant upon others, and also to prepare Italy for war. Mussolini increased controls on currency and used the government assistance to develop new products as import substitutes. However, autarky within Italy was impossible. There were virtually no coals supplies with little iron and no discovered oil meaning that the Italian relied on oil from Libya. By 1940, domestic production met only one-fifth of Italys raw material needs and there was an increase in prices and taxation which angered the Italian people as there had already been rises due to the wars and the high costs from them. So Mussolinis desire for Autarky was an unsuccessful one. It only led to even more increases in prices for products, which the Italian people were really beginning to struggle to afford. Also during Mussolinis aggressive foreign policy, he believed that it was important for the country of Italy to act as a welfare state. What this means is that the government is concerned with the welfare of its citizens although some argue how a dictator can run his/her country as a welfare state. The aims were to protect the interests of the people, to reduce the danger of unrest, to demonstrate a united nation and to prepare Italians for military success. Numerous amounts of propaganda were applied to help win support and show how Mussolini stressed the importance of looking after his people. The welfare state was funded by state taxations, with were already low due to costs of the wars, and levies on various organisations e.g. banks. There were particular measures behind the scheme including improving the health facilities within Italian hospitals, providing the Italian people with pensions, improving working conditions, setting up a childcare system and general welfare for suffering families. Also Mussolini was right to set up a welfare state within Italy, much of his aspirations were never achieved. There was an improvement to some hospitals in major cities although in many areas there were still no hospitals. There was no extension of a government pension scheme apart from minor improvements in 1939 and working conditions were not really improved although there were shorter working hours in 1934 but this was mainly to do with the depression. The question can be raised that if Italy didnt spend so much money on Abyssinia and other wars, then maybe more money would have been available to fund the welfare state. However, the Italian people would have been unaware of this due to the censorship and propaganda which hid what really went on. Mussolinis relationship with Hitler was gradually improving and it meant that although Mussolini was trying to improve the conditions for most Italians, he also made them worse for others. Initially, there was very little Anti-Semitism in Italy however in 1938 Mussolini introduced racist decrees discriminating Jews. This change in policy is usually seen as a reflection of Mussolinis subservience to Hitler. By showing support to Hitler, Mussolini hoped to better his relationship with Germany which could lead to Italy increasing its empire, if a war was fought and won. Radical laws were applied such as no Jewish children were allowed in state schools and there were to be no mixed marriages. Jewish teachers were not even allowed to teach in the state schools. These radical decrees raised mixed emotions in Italy. Many people resented them believing that Mussolini was being led by Hitler and the Pope was publicly critical as well as the King being privately critical. Although there were o nly 50,000 Jews in Italy at the time, it shows how Jews were becoming unwelcome in Italy and Mussolinis relationship with Hitler had caused him to act more and more like him. In conclusion, to answer the question above, you can see that Mussolinis aggressive foreign policy had a powerful effect on the Italian people. Although he strived to improve the conditions of Italy and make it a better place to live, through the welfare state, the economy was poor and there was little money available due to the high costs, especially in the Abyssinian war, which didnt really achieve anything. Large amounts of weapons had been used in the wars during Mussolinis aggressive foreign policy which left Italy unprepared for future world war. His foreign policy had a particularly dramatic effect on the Jewish people as his relationship with Hitler and determination to act like him caused Mussolini to discriminate against the Jews which before had even featured in his party. Mussolini was concerned about the future of Italy and used youth groups and Autarky to try and prepare the country for future wars. However, Autarky was impossible as oil had not even been discovered. Al though he strived for nation pride through achieving glorious triumphs across the Mediterranean, breaking free of the bars, and dominating in Africa, little was achieved and it only left Italy itself facing huge costs which led to high prices and taxation which the Italian people were faced to pay. If Mussolini had focused more on trying to improve the conditions of the people within his own country, rather than focusing on conquering others, then maybe there would have been mass support for him. Instead, by focusing on increasing his empire, he forgot about improving the state of Italy and its people.

Differences Between the Antifederalists and Federalists essays

Differences Between the Antifederalists and Federalists essays The Articles of Confederation stirred up many problems between the states. The antifederalists, or people who opposed a strong federal government, came into quarrel with the federalists, who favored a strong federal government. The federalists differ from the anti-federalists in terms of social, economic, and political expression. Many differences arose between the federalists and the antifederalists concerning social issues. First of all, the antifederalists were from the poorer classes, while the federalists were from higher, more aristocratic classes. Antifederalists mainly consisted of uneducated people who made up the working class. Federalists, however, were aristocratic people who were cultured and well educated. Also, many popular figures were in conflict with one another, due to their antifederalist or federalist beliefs. Patrick Henry, a famous patriot and lawyer, provided support for the antifederalists. Being from Virginia, the largest and most populous of the states, Patrick Henry was a powerful figure. On the other hand, George Washington, James Madison, and John Marshall were all in support of the federalist side. James Madison, along with John Jay and Alexander Hamilton, wrote The Federalist, a group of propaganda essays written for the New York newspapers. Besides social differences, economic differences also widened the gap between the antifederalists and the federalists. The poor antifederalists were in conflict with the rich federalists. Antifederalists, for instance, consisted of people who were in debt. The debtors feared a strong central government would make they pay off their debts. Also, antifederalists also did not want the states to establish laws regarding tariffs and navigation. Antifederalists were poor; therefore, they created worthless money to pay off their debts. On the other hand, the federalists were wealthy people who were of noble birth. They immensely disagreed with the antifederalist act...